Enhancing hydrogen spillover and storage

ABSTRACT

Methods for enhancing hydrogen spillover and storage are disclosed. One embodiment of the method includes doping a hydrogen receptor with metal particles, and exposing the hydrogen receptor to ultrasonification as doping occurs. Another embodiment of the method includes doping a hydrogen receptor with metal particles, and exposing the doped hydrogen receptor to a plasma treatment.

CROSS REFERENCE TO RELATED APPLICATIONS

This application claims the benefit of U.S. Provisional Patent Application Ser. No. 60/725,337 filed on Oct. 11, 2005, and U.S. Provisional Patent Application Ser. No. 60/751,744 filed on Dec. 19, 2005, and additionally is a continuation-in-part of copending U.S. patent application Ser. No. 11/442,898 filed on May 30, 2006, each of which is incorporated herein by reference in its entirety.

STATEMENT REGARDING FEDERALLY SPONSORED RESEARCH OR DEVELOPMENT

This invention was made in the course of research partially supported by a grant from the U.S. Department of Energy Grant No. DE-FC36-05-GO15078. The U.S. government has certain rights in the invention.

BACKGROUND

The present disclosure relates generally to hydrogen storage, and more particularly to methods for enhancing hydrogen spillover and storage.

The U.S. Department of Energy (DOE) has established a multi-stage target for hydrogen storage capacity in materials, for example, those materials intended for fuel cell applications. The targets for on-board hydrogen storage materials are about 1.5 kW/kg (4.5 wt %) by 2007, about 2 kW/kg (6 wt %) by 2010, and about 3 kW/kg (9 wt %) by 2015.

In attempts to meet the DOE targets, nanostructured carbon materials (e.g. carbon nanotubes, graphite nanofibers, activated carbon, and graphite) have become of interest to researchers as potential hydrogen adsorbents. However, it has been shown that nanostructured carbons (in particular, carbon nanotubes) have slow uptake, irreversibly adsorbed species, and the presence of reduced transition metals.

Experimental evidence, combined with ab initio molecular orbital calculations of hydrogen atoms on graphite, has led to the proposal of a mechanism for hydrogen storage in carbon nanostructures involving hydrogen dissociation on metal particles followed by atomic hydrogen spillover and adsorption on the nanostructured carbon surface. Hydrogen spillover was first postulated in the early 1960s, and despite continued investigations and research to support the theory, the mechanistic details of hydrogen spillover are still poorly understood.

As such, it would be desirable to provide methods for enhancing hydrogen spillover and increasing hydrogen storage capacity.

SUMMARY

Methods for enhancing hydrogen spillover and storage are disclosed. One embodiment of the method includes doping a hydrogen receptor with metal particles, and exposing the hydrogen receptor to ultrasonification as doping occurs. Another embodiment of the method includes doping a hydrogen receptor with metal particles, and exposing the doped hydrogen receptor to a plasma treatment.

BRIEF DESCRIPTION OF THE DRAWINGS

Features and advantages of the present disclosure will become apparent by reference to the following detailed description and drawings, in which like reference numerals correspond to similar, though not necessarily identical components. For the sake of brevity, reference numerals or features having a previously described function may not necessarily be described in connection with other drawings in which they appear.

FIG. 1 is a schematic diagram depicting the spillover process in an embodiment of the composition;

FIG. 2 is a schematic diagram depicting the spillover process in another embodiment of the composition;

FIG. 3 is a schematic diagram depicting the spillover process in still another embodiment of the composition;

FIGS. 4A through 4D are high-resolution transmission electron microscopy (HRTEM) images of a Pt/AX-21 sample formed using ultrasonification;

FIG. 5 is a graph depicting high-pressure hydrogen isotherms at 298 K for pure AX-21 ▪, and the Pt/AX-21 sample: adsorption O, and desorption ▴;

FIG. 6 is a graph depicting equilibrium adsorption isotherms for hydrogen at 298 K on super-activated carbon AX-21 (BET surface area ˜2600 m²/g) ▪, Pt-doped AX-21 carbon with ultrasound ▴, and Pt-doped AX-21 with ultrasound and plasma treatment O; and

FIG. 7 is a graph depicting equilibrium adsorption isotherms for hydrogen at 298 K on activated carbon (BET surface area ˜1000 m²/g) □, Pt-doped carbon ♦, and Pt-doped carbon with further plasma treatment O, ▴.

DETAILED DESCRIPTION

Embodiments of the method and composition disclosed herein advantageously increase hydrogen spillover and hydrogen storage capacity in hydrogen receptors (e.g., nanostructured carbon materials). It is believed that the hydrogen storage capacities may advantageously be enhanced by a factor of two or more, when compared to pure samples. Without being bound to any theory, it is believed that ultrasonication and/or plasma treatments serve to substantially improve contact or anchoring between a spillover source and a receptor.

Referring now to FIG. 1, an embodiment of the composition 10 is illustrated. The composition includes metal particles 12 and a receptor 14. It is to be understood that the metal particles 12 may serve as the source of hydrogen atoms via dissociation. In this case, the transport of hydrogen atoms from the metal particles 12 to the receptor 14 is referred to as primary spillover.

An embodiment of the method for forming the composition 10 shown in FIG. 1 (and thereby enhancing hydrogen storage of the composition 10) includes doping the receptor 14 with metal particles 12, and exposing the receptor 14 to ultrasonification as doping occurs. In an embodiment, the amount of metal particles 12 doped on and/or in the receptor 14 is less than about 10 wt %. In a non-limiting example, the amount of doped metal particles 12 ranges from about 0.1 wt % to about 6 wt %.

An embodiment of the method includes drying the receptor 14, in part to remove moisture that may be adsorbed, for example, from the ambient air. Drying may be accomplished via degassing and/or heating. In an embodiment, the receptor 14 may be any suitable porous and/or microporous material, including activated carbons, super-activated carbon, carbon nanotubes (a non-limitative example of which includes single-wall carbon nanotubes (SWNT)), carbon nanofibers, molecular sieves, silica gel, alumina, zeolites, metal-organic framework (MOF) materials, covalent organic framework (COF) materials; and combinations thereof. A non-limitative embodiment of super-activated carbon includes AX-21 super-activated carbon, which is commercially available from, for example, Osaka Gas Chemicals, Ltd., Osaka, Japan. In a non-limitative embodiment, the zeolites are selected from zeolite X, zeolite Y, zeolite LSX, MCM-41 zeolites, silicoaluminophosphates (SAPOs), and combinations thereof.

Non-limitative examples of metal-organic frameworks include MOF-5, MOF-8 (the terms “MOF-8” and “IRMOF-8” (iso-reticular MOF-8) are used interchangeably herein), IRMOF-177, MIL-101 (a high surface area metal-organic framework), and/or the like, and/or combinations thereof, which are constructed by linking tetrahedral clusters with linear carboxylates. It is to be understood that porous, crystalline, covalent organic framework (COF) materials may also be used as the receptor 14. COFs are formed from light elements (e.g., H, B, C, N, and O) that form strong covalent bonds in materials such as diamond, graphite, and boron nitride. COFs may be micro- and mesoporous crystalline structures. These COF materials have substantially rigid structures, excellent thermal stabilities (to temperatures up to about 600° C.), and relatively low densities. Further, these materials exhibit permanent porosity with specific surface areas substantially surpassing those of well-known zeolites and porous silicates. Yet further, it has been found that COF materials generally do not adsorb water vapor, and thus may be more stable than MOF materials when used as the receptor 14 in embodiment(s) of the present disclosure. In a non-limitative embodiment, the COF materials are selected from COF-1 [(C₃H₂BO)₆(C₉H₁₂)₁], COF-5 (C₉H₄BO₂), and combinations thereof. The synthesis and crystallization of suitable COF materials is described by Côte et al., “Porous, Crystalline, Covalent Organic Frameworks,” Science, Vol. 310, pages 1166-1170 (Nov. 18, 2005).

The dried receptor 14 may then be added to a solvent to form a dispersion of the receptor 14 in the solvent. As a non-limiting example, the solvent is acetone, dimethylformamide (DMF), diethyl-formamide (DEF), or any other organic solvent. The receptor 14/solvent dispersion may include a weight ratio of receptor 14 to solvent ranging from about 1:0.01 to about 1:100. As a non-limiting example, about 200 mg of the dried receptor 14 is added to about 20 mL of acetone. In an embodiment, the receptor 14/solvent dispersion is stirred for a predetermined time at room temperature.

A predetermined amount of a solution including a source of the metal particles 12 and a solvent is added to the solvent/receptor 14 dispersion. As non-limiting examples, the solvent may be acetone, DMF, DEF, or any other organic solvent; and the source of metal particles 12 may be any metal salt of the desired hydrogen-dissociating metals that are to be doped on the receptor 14. Examples of such metal particle sources include salts of transition metals and salts of noble metals. In a non-limiting example, the source of metal particles 12 is H₂PtCl₆. The metal particle 12 source/solvent solution may include a weight ratio of metal particle 12 to solvent ranging from about 1:0.01 to about 1:100. As a non-limiting example, about 26 mg of H₂PtCl₆ is added to about 2 mL of acetone, and this entire solution is added as the predetermined amount. In an embodiment, the predetermined amount of metal particle 12 source/solvent solution added to the solvent/receptor 14 dispersion is enough such that the mixture is a slurry or a semi-liquid.

It is to be understood that as the metal particle 12 source/solvent solution is added to the solvent/receptor 14 dispersion, the mixture/slurry is subjected to agitation. The mixture/slurry is then exposed to ultrasonication. In an embodiment, ultrasonication is accomplished at a predetermined power, frequency, and temperature, and for a predetermined time. Generally, the power ranges from about 5 W to about 200 W, the frequency ranges from about 10 KHz to about 10 MHz, the temperature ranges from about 0° C. to about 100° C., and the time ranges from about 5 minutes to about 5 hours. In a non-limiting example, ultrasonication is accomplished at about 100 W, about 42 KHz, at room temperature for about 1 hour. The ultrasonication may be followed by agitation (e.g., magnetically induced agitation) at room temperature for a predetermined time.

In an embodiment, the ultrasonicated mixture/slurry is dried to remove excess solvent, moisture, etc., to form the composition 10 shown in FIG. 1. As depicted, the metal particles 12 are highly dispersed on and/or in the receptor 14. Without being bound to any theory, it is believed that the ultrasonication creates finer metal particles 12 and enables better dispersion. It is further believed that the dispersed metal particles 12 have a relatively large surface area that enables maximum contact with the receptor 14 and hydrogen molecules.

The method may also include exposing the composition 10 to one or more gas flows. This may be accomplished to suitable gas flows include a helium gas flow, a hydrogen gas flow, or combinations thereof. In an embodiment, the composition 10 is exposed to a first gas flow (e.g., He) at a first temperature, and then to a second gas flow (e.g., H₂) at a second temperature, where the second temperature is higher than the first temperature. The composition 10 is then slowly cooled to room temperature in the presence of a gas (suitable examples of which are previously described).

Referring now to FIG. 2, an embodiment of the composition 10 of FIG. 1 is shown (as reference numeral 10′) after exposure to a plasma treatment. Suitable plasma treatments include glow discharge plasma (in which a gas such as Ar (or other inert gases), H₂, O₂, CO₂, or the like is used), microwave plasma, plasma spraying, radio frequency plasma, and combinations thereof. The plasma treatment effectively forms a chemical bridge 20 at the interstices between the metal particles 12 and the receptor 14. Without being bound to any theory, it is believed that the chemical bridges 20 may enhance the hydrogen storage capacity by about 270% from the hydrogen storage capacity of the receptor 14 prior to any treatment, depending, at least in part, on the receptor 14 selected. In the embodiment shown in FIG. 2, it is believed that the spillover and storage capacity is enhanced by both the doping/ultrasonification process and the plasma treatment.

In an embodiment, the plasma treatment is accomplished at a predetermined pressure and temperature. It is to be understood that the pressure and temperature selected will depend, at least in part, on the plasma treatment used and/or the materials used to form the composition 10, 10′, 10″. In some embodiments, the pressure ranges from about 1 torr to about 1 atm, and the temperature ranges from about 0° C. to about 1000° C. The composition 10 may be exposed to plasma treatment for any suitable time period, and in an embodiment, the time ranges from about 5 minutes to about 60 minutes.

Referring now to FIG. 3, an embodiment of the composition 10″ formed via other doping methods and plasma treatment is depicted. Other doping methods include physical mixing methods (e.g., described in U.S. patent application No. Ser. No. 11/442,898), chemical doping methods, or combinations thereof. The plasma treatment may be performed as previously described to form chemical bridges between the metal particle 12 and the receptor 14. As previously stated, it is believed that the formation of such bridges 20 enhanced spillover and storage capacity. It is to be understood that doping and plasma treatment may also be performed in one step by using, for example, plasma spraying.

It is to be understood that the compositions 10, 10′, 10″ may be substantially fully reversible through desorption and re-adsorption at about 298 K. Without being bound to any theory, it is believed that the release of hydrogen at room temperature is possible because the bond energy is low enough to desorb. In an embodiment, desorption at 298 K may take place in a vacuum (about 1 Pa) for a predetermined time (e.g., a time ranging from about 1 minute to about 10 hours). It is to be understood that the predetermined time may depend, at least in part, on the amount of hydrogen to be desorped. In another embodiment, desorption may be accomplished by heating the composition 10, 10′, 10″ at a temperature ranging from about 298 K to about 423 K.

Without being bound to any theory, it is believed that molecular hydrogen may also be desorbed from the receptor 14 of the composition 10, 10′, 10″ upon depressurization. In this embodiment, it is believed that hydrogen atoms on the interior sites of the receptor 14 desorb first. The binding energies on these interior sites are relatively low (e.g., on the order of 10-15 kcal/mol), and the adsorbed hydrogen atoms are mobile. As such, an interior-exterior exchange is possible, and the interior sites substantially continuously serve as the sites to which hydrogen atoms migrate and from which hydrogen is desorbed as molecular hydrogen.

FIGS. 1, 2 and 3 also depict the spillover process in the composition 10, 10′, 10″. Dissociation of the hydrogen atoms (as indicated by H) takes place on the metal particles 12 and atomic hydrogen spills over ultimately to the receptor 14.

In FIG. 1, the atoms are transported to the receptor 14 via diffusion, and may then access additional sites 24 on the receptor 14. In this embodiment, it is believed that the relatively large metal surface area enhances primary spillover and thus, storage capacity of composition 10.

In FIGS. 2 and 3, the atoms are transported to the receptor 14 via diffusion across the bridges 20, and may then access additional sites 24 on the receptor 14. In the embodiment shown in FIG. 2, it is believed that the combination of the relatively large metal surface area and the chemical bridges 20 enhance primary spillover and thus, storage capacity of composition 10′. In the embodiment shown in FIG. 3, it is believed that the chemical bridges 20 enhance primary spillover and thus, storage capacity of composition 10″.

In any of the embodiments disclosed herein, the metal particles 12 may be supported by a support (not shown). Generally, the metal particles 12 are capable of dissociating hydrogen from the gas phase. In an embodiment, the metal particles may be formed of transition or noble metals (non-limitative examples of which include Pt, Pd, Ru, Rh, Ni, Co, Fe, or the like, or combinations thereof), or hydrogenation catalysts that are capable of dissociating hydrogen (a non-limitative example of which includes copper chromate). Any high surface area porous material may be used as the support (non-limitative examples of which include activated carbon, carbon nanotubes, carbon nanofibers, activated alumina, silica gel, clays, metal oxides, molecular sieves, zeolites, or the like, or combinations thereof).

It is to be understood that the supported metal particles may serve as the source of hydrogen atoms via dissociation. Generally, if the source of atomic hydrogen is a dissociating metal particle 12 on a low capacity support, hydrogen adsorption may be increased by adding a high capacity receptor 14. In this case, the transport of hydrogen atoms from the metal particles 12 to the support is referred to as primary spillover, and the transport of hydrogen atoms from the support to the receptor 14 is referred to as secondary spillover.

To further illustrate embodiment(s) of the present disclosure, various examples are given herein. It is to be understood that these examples are provided for illustrative purposes and are not to be construed as limiting the scope of the disclosed embodiment(s).

Example 1 Platinum Nanoparticles Doped on Super Activated Carbon Using Ultrasonication Preparation of Sample

AX-21 super-activated carbon was obtained from Anderson Development Company. AX-21 generally adsorbs a large amount of moisture from the ambient air, and as such, it was dried by degassing in vacuum at 393 K for 12 hours before doping. About 200 mg of the well-dried AX-21 carbon was dispersed in about 20 mL of acetone and stirred for about 0.5 hours in a 125 mL Erlenmeyer flask at room temperature.

A 2 mL acetone solution containing 26 mg H₂PtCl₆ (Aldrich, 99.9%) was slowly added dropwise to the above solution under vigorous agitation for about 10 minutes. The Erlenmeyer flask containing the slurry was subjected to ultrasonication (100 W, 42 KHz) at room temperature for about 1 hour, and then was magnetically agitated at room temperature for about 24 hours.

The sample was dried in an oven at 333 K overnight to evaporate most of the acetone solvent, and then the impregnated carbon sample was transferred to a quartz boat, which was slid into a horizontal quartz tube. The sample was further dried in a He flow at 393 K for about 2 hours to remove any residual acetone and any moisture adsorbed on the sample. The He flow was switched to an H₂ flow, and the temperature was increased to 573 K at a heating rate of 1 K/min. This flow and temperature was held for about 2 hours. After slowly cooling to room temperature in H₂, the sample was purged with flowing He and stored under He atmosphere before further measurement.

Characterization of Sample

The BET surface areas, pore volumes, and median pore diameters of pure AX-21 and the Pt doped AX-21 sample are shown in Table 1.

TABLE 1 Surface areas, pore volumes, and pore diameters of AX-21 and Pt/AX-21 Median pore BET SA Langmuir SA Pore volume diameter Sample (m²/g) (m²/g) (cm³/g)^(a) (Å)^(a) AX-21 2880 4032 1.27 20.3 Pt/AX-21 2518 3678 1.22 13.8 ^(a)From H-K analysis The super-activated carbon (AX-21) had a BET surface area of 2880 m2/g and a total pore volume of 1.27 cm³/g. As shown in the Table, the BET surface area and pore volume decreased slightly upon doping a small amount of Pt. It is believed that the decrease in surface area and pore volume may be attributed to blocking or filling of the micropores and mesopores of AX-21 by Pt particles. EDX analysis showed that the content of Pt doped on the AX-21 carbon was about 5.6 wt %, in agreement with the stoichiometry in the synthesis.

High-resolution TEM images of the Pt/AX-21 sample are shown in FIGS. 4A through 4D. As depicted, the Pt nanoparticles were highly dispersed on the surface of the super-activated carbon with rather uniform sizes around 2 nm. As shown in FIG. 4D, at a higher resolution, the black spots of Pt particles were distributed widely over the carbon surface, and the microstructures of the carbon began to emerge.

The dispersion of platinum of the Pt/AX-21 sample was determined by using static volumetric CO and H₂ chemisorption methods. The amounts of chemisorbed CO or H₂ on the samples were obtained by the isotherm extrapolation method introduced by Benson and Boudart in which the isotherm from low pressures is extrapolated to zero pressure to determine the monolayer surface coverage of the sample. The amount of chemisorbed CO (at 308 K) on pure AX-21 was zero, indicating that the adsorption of CO on AX-21 is physical adsorption. The obtained CO chemisorbed amount at zero pressure on the Pt/AX-21 sample was about 2.6 cm³/g. Assuming 0.7 CO molecule per surface Pt atom, the dispersion of Pt on AX-21 was calculated to be about 58%. This indicated a high dispersion of Pt on AX-21 using the doping technique disclosed herein.

Hydrogen Isotherm Measurements

Hydrogen adsorption at 298 K and pressures greater than 0.1 MPa and up to 10 MPa was measured using a static volumetric technique with a specially designed Sievert's apparatus. The apparatus was previously tested for leaks and accuracy. Calibration was accomplished using LaNi5, AX-21, zeolites, and IRMOFs at 298 K. All isotherms matched the known values for these materials. Approximately 200-300 mg of each sample (pure AX-21 and Pt/AX-21) was used for each high-pressure isotherm measurement. Before measurements, the samples were degassed in vacuum at 623 K (350° C.) for at least 12 hours.

The high-pressure hydrogen isotherms at 298 K for pure AX-21 and Pt/AX-21 are shown in FIG. 5. As depicted, AX-21 had a hydrogen storage capacity of about 0.6 wt % at 298K and 10 MPa. This value corresponded with the reported data on the H₂ uptakes on AX-21 under the same conditions. Furthermore, repeated H₂ adsorption measurements on the high-pressure H₂ adsorption system yielded the same value. This indicates that the apparatus and measurement procedure were highly accurate and reproducible.

By doping about 5.6 wt % Pt on AX-21, the hydrogen uptakes have been significantly enhanced at all pressures, as shown in FIG. 5. The maximum hydrogen storage capacity was about 1.2 wt % at 10 MPa. In comparison with pure AX-21, the hydrogen adsorption amount has been enhanced by a factor of 2.

It is believed that this significant enhancement cannot be attributed to the differences in the surface area and pore volume because both the surface area and pore volume of the Pt/AX-21 sample were lower than that of pure AX-21 (see Table 1). Furthermore, it is believed that hydrogen adsorption on Pt metal is also not the reason for the enhancement. Even assuming 100% dispersion of Pt on AX-21 and one H atom per Pt, the hydrogen adsorption amount on 6 wt % Pt in the doped sample amounts to 0.03 wt %. Furthermore, if the individual contributions of 6 wt % Pt metal and the AX-21 support (94% in the doped sample) were considered additive, the expected hydrogen uptake of the Pt/AX-21 sample would be slightly lower than 0.6 wt %, i.e., the storage capacity of pure AX-21.

As such, it is believed that the enhancement was clear evidence of spillover of atomic hydrogen from the Pt nanoparticles to the AX-21 receptor. Without being bound to any theory, it is believed that the high dispersion of the Pt nanoparticles on the AX-21 carbon resulted from using ultrasound, which in turn led to the high storage capacity. Highly dispersed Pt has a large metal surface area that enables the maximum contact with the carbon structures, and also with hydrogen molecules.

Reversibility of the Pt/AX-21 sample was evaluated by measuring the desorption branch down to 1 atm. FIG. 5 depicts that the desorption branch nearly followed the adsorption branch, although there appeared to be a slight hysteresis. The sample was then evacuated to a pressure of 1 Pa (7.5×10⁻³ Torr) for about 12 hours at 298 K, and total desorption occurred. A second adsorption isotherm was in complete agreement with the first adsorption isotherm. These results indicate that hydrogen adsorption in the Pt/AX-21 sample was fully reversible.

Example 2 Platinum Nanoparticles Doped on Super Activated Carbon Using Ultrasonication Followed by Plasma Treatment Preparation of Samples

Two Pt/AX-21 samples having 6 wt % doped platinum were formed using the method described in Example 1. After doping, one of the samples was treated to a glow discharge plasma treatment using argon at 100-200 Pa pressure. The glow discharge was generated by applying 900 V to the electrodes. The temperature of the plasma was near the ambient temperature. The time for plasma treatment ranged from 10 minutes to 50 minutes.

Equilibrium Adsorption Isotherms

The procedure for measuring the equilibrium adsorption isotherms was the same as that described in Example 1 for the hydrogen isotherm measurements. FIG. 6 depicts the equilibrium adsorption isotherms for hydrogen at 298 K on pure super-activated carbon AX-21 (BET surface area about 2600 m2/g) ▪, the Pt-doped AX-21 carbon formed with ultrasound ▴, and the Pt-doped AX-21 sample formed with ultrasound and plasma treatment O.

As shown in FIG. 6, the curve denoted by Pt/AX-21 was the sample that was doped with 6 wt % Pt using the ultrasound technique. This sample had an increased hydrogen equilibrium adsorption isotherm when compare to the pure AX-21 sample. Upon further plasma treatment, an additional enhancement in hydrogen storage was obtained.

Example 3 Platinum Nanoparticles Doped on Activated Carbon Followed by Plasma Treatment Preparation of Samples

Two Pt/C samples having 3 wt % doped platinum were formed using conventional doping techniques, such as incipient wetness impregnation. Norit activated carbon (commercially available from Norit Americas Inc. in Marshall, Tex.) was used as the receptor in this example. After doping, one of the samples was treated to a glow discharge plasma treatment using argon at 100-200 Pa pressure. The glow discharge was generated by applying 900 V to the electrodes. The temperature of the plasma was near the ambient temperature. The time for plasma treatment ranged from 10 minutes to 50 minutes.

Equilibrium Adsorption Isotherms

The procedure for measuring the equilibrium adsorption isotherms was the same as that described in Example 1 for the hydrogen isotherm measurements. The effects of plasma treatment on the hydrogen storage of 3 wt % Pt doped activated carbon are shown in FIG. 7. In FIG. 7, the equilibrium adsorption isotherm of hydrogen at 298 K is shown. After doping the carbon with 3 wt % Pt, the hydrogen storage capacity was increased by about 50%, due to spillover. As previously described, one sample of Pt doped carbon was further treated with plasma, and this resulted in an increase of the hydrogen storage capacity by approximately 270% from the value of the pure carbon. This large enhancement by plasma treatment was attributed to chemical bridges that were built between the Pt particles and the carbon surface, which is believed to have enhanced the spillover. The triangle symbol in FIG. 7 indicates the data on desorption of the plasma treated Pt doped carbon at 298 K. The last data point, not shown here, was taken by evacuation, and the isotherm returned to zero upon evacuation. Thus, the adsorbed hydrogen via spillover could be desorbed completely at 298 K.

While several embodiments have been described in detail, it will be apparent to those skilled in the art that the disclosed embodiments may be modified. Therefore, the foregoing description is to be considered exemplary rather than limiting. 

1. (canceled)
 2. (canceled)
 3. (canceled)
 4. A method for enhancing hydrogen storage, comprising: doping a hydrogen receptor with metal particles by: forming a dispersion including the hydrogen receptor; and adding a solution including a source of the metal particles to the dispersion including the hydrogen receptor, thereby forming a mixture; exposing the hydrogen receptor to ultrasonication as doping occurs; drying the mixture to form a composition; subjecting the composition to a first gas flow at a first temperature; subjecting the composition to a second gas flow at a second temperature, the second temperature being higher than the first temperature; and cooling the composition.
 5. The method as defined in claim 12 wherein the hydrogen receptor is selected from activated carbons, carbon nanotubes, carbon nanofibers, molecular sieves, silica gel, alumina, zeolites, metal-organic framework materials, and combinations thereof.
 6. The method as defined in claim 12 wherein the metal particles are selected from platinum, palladium, ruthenium, rhodium, nickel, copper, iron, or the like, and combinations thereof.
 7. A method for enhancing hydrogen storage, comprising: doping a hydrogen receptor with metal particles; exposing the hydrogen receptor to ultrasonication as doping occurs; and then exposing the doped hydrogen receptor to a plasma treatment.
 8. The method as defined in claim 7 wherein the plasma treatment is selected from glow discharge plasma, microwave plasma, plasma spraying, and combinations thereof.
 9. The method as defined in claim 7 further comprising forming chemical bridges between respective metal particles and a surface of the hydrogen receptor during the plasma treatment.
 10. The method as defined in claim 7 wherein the plasma treatment is accomplished for a predetermined time ranging from about 5 minutes to about 60 minutes at a predetermined temperature up to 1000° C.
 11. The method as defined in claim 12 wherein a source of the metal particles is selected from a salt of a transition metal, a salt of a noble metal, and combinations thereof.
 12. A method for enhancing hydrogen storage, comprising: doping a hydrogen receptor with metal particles; and then exposing the doped hydrogen receptor to a plasma treatment.
 13. The method as defined in claim 12 wherein the plasma treatment is selected from glow discharge plasma, microwave plasma, plasma spraying, radio frequency plasma, and combinations thereof.
 14. The method as defined in claim 13 wherein a gas used in the glow discharge plasma is selected from inert gases, hydrogen gas, oxygen gas, carbon dioxide, and combinations thereof.
 15. The method as defined in claim 12 wherein the plasma treatment forms chemical bridges between respective metal particles and a surface of the hydrogen receptor.
 16. The method as defined in claim 12 wherein the plasma treatment is accomplished for a predetermined time at a predetermined temperature. 17.-21. (canceled)
 22. The method as defined in claim 12 wherein the doped hydrogen receptor further includes a chemical bridge precursor material.
 23. A composition for hydrogen storage formed by the method of claim
 12. 24. (canceled)
 25. (canceled)
 26. (canceled) 